CORPORATE
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Lessons for Uganda
By
Assoc. Prof. Waswa Balunywa
Principal, MUBS
Presented
at a
PUBLIC
AWARENESS LECTURER
ORGANISED
BY
INSTITUTE
OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE OF UGANDA
JULY
27TH, 2004
CASES
1. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Exxon
Corporation is one of the world’s biggest multinational companies with primary
interests in oil and petroleum products. One of its oil tankers, a ship
carrying millions of gallons had an accident off the cost of Alaska in North America.
It was reported that about twelve
million gallons of oil was spilled from the tanker. This environment disaster
caused havoc to animal and plant life over an area of 1,100 miles of coast
line. Sea otters, fish, birds were
killed in thousands. Plant life was destroyed extensively.
Ecologists
call this the worst environment catastrophe ever.
2.
Union
Carbide in Bhopal, India
Union Carbide
Corporation is a US based multinational company dealing in chemical and is one
of the largest chemical companies. It has plants and distribution outlets
throughout the world including one in Bhopal. In December 1980, at the Bhopal
plant, water contamination occurred in a highly poisonous chemical called
Methyl Isocyanate (MIC), which is used in production of serin, a pesticide. This
caused a cloud of MIC gas to drift over the city of Bhopal. Within a few hours
of the leakage about 2600 people within the vicinity of the plant died. By
1991, it was reported that about 1 person was dying per day as a result of the
leakage. Union carbide took a responsibility to make good and compensated
people who were affected.
3.
Enron
Corporation
Enron
Corp. was one of the largest energy, commodities and Service Company. Before it
filed for bankruptcy,
it marketed electricity and natural gas, delivered energy and other physical
commodities, and provided financial and risk management services to customers
worldwide.
Based
in Houston, Texas, Enron was formed in July 1985 by the manager of Houston
Natural Gas and Inter North of Omaha, Nebraska. Initially, a natural gas
pipeline company, Enron rapidly evolved from delivering energy to brokering
energy futures as energy markets were deregulated. The company began marketing
electricity in 1994 and entered the European energy market in 1995.
Enron
illegally reaped $ 1.1 billion profit from questionable trading schemes with
nicknames like “Death Star” and “Get Shortly.”
Employees
of Enron Corp. coached rookie traders on ways to overload California’s power
grid during the state’s energy crisis and kept multiple sets of books to cover
their tracks.
An
Enron trader would coach new ways to overload California’s transmission grid,
and then collect a fee for relieving the fake congestion.
“If
the line is not congested, then I would just look for ways to congest it,” said
a trader. “If you can congest it, that’s money-maker no matter what, cause you‘re
not losing any money to move it down the line.”
4.
Nakasero
Soap Works
In
Uganda, there was a case of Nakasero soap Works in Mbuya which was reported
sometime back to be emitting in the air that affected residents.
There
are many other cases worldwide where organizations are reaping off consumers
and the general public while some never come to light.
These
cases raise questions of the responsibility of business organizations as they pursue
markets and profits.
What
is Corporate Social Responsibility?
Social
responsibility of a business or corporate responsibility consists of series of
obligations a business has towards the business itself, its employee’s, owners,
the state and the society at large.
The
primary objectives of a business have seen by business scholars and economists,
to be satisfaction of customer needs and profit maximization. A business exists for economic performance
and economic results. Therefore markets
and profits are the key objectives.
However,
business enterprises perform theses profit motivated activities in society,
thus society has interest in business.
The
fact that business operate in Society, it has an impact on it in a variety of
ways. It offers products and services to consumers.
But
its actions can also impact on the society negatively. Business affects the
physical environment. It may for instance pollute it. By doing so, society has
been demanding that business should have social responsibility and not only
exploit resources in environment, but make sure that it preserves them and
safeguards others. The major issues here have been pollution of environment and
conservation of resources through effective utilization.
Pollution
Business extracts resources
from the environment and is able to give us goods and services. However, in the
process of doing so, business may negatively impact on the environment.
Business has therefore to assess the impact of its activities to see whether
they will be acceptable.
Key
issues that have been of concern;
·
Usage
of agro chemical
To be able to increase
production in agriculture, chemical are used to kill insects and fungi. These
chemical are toxic (poisonous) and also biocidal (Life killing). They not only
affect plants but the people who use them.
·
Nuclear
waster
While searching for
alternative sources of energy to meet the increased demand for energy, nuclear
power became a source. However, the disposal
of the spent nuclear fuel is a problem. Radiation, which is emitted from spent
uranium and is harmful to human beings. It can cause cancer and other problems.
·
Acid
Rain
As business exploits
resources and uses energy it emits certain gases in the air. A gas called
sulphur dioxide is produced by burning of fossil fuels, mainly coal. This gas
rises into the atmosphere and it reacts with water in the clouds. The reaction increases
the acidity in the water and when it rains, the rains are as termed acid rains
which are harmful to plants and animals.
·
The
Greenhouse Effect
As business burns
fossil fuels, certain gases, known as Chloro-Flouro Carbons (CFCs) but
particularly
Carbon dioxide are emitted into atmosphere. These gases interfere with the natural
process of reflecting back the earth rays into the atmosphere. Ordinarily, when
the sun shines, its rays in form of radiation, heat the earth.
In a greenhouse, the rays instead of being
leaked back into space are reflected into the house. Gases have a similar
effect; their presences in the atmosphere do not allow rays to be leaked into
space. Instead, they are reflected back onto the earth. This results into
global warming. The earth becomes
wormer. The impact of global warming is increased desertification, disappearance
of low-lying islands due to increase in water caused by melting ice I polar
areas. These affect agriculture and life generally.
·
Holes
in the ozone layer
In addition to the
global warming, another negative effect is skin cancer that arises from direct
sun rays, called Ultra violent radiation. The earth has a protective layer
called the ozone. The ozone deflects some of the ultra violent rays away from
the earth. However, it has been found that CFCs that have been emitted into the
atmosphere have been responsible for holes in the ozone layer that have been
identified. This leads to human beings being exposed to the sun rays, which may
lead to skin cancer. CFCs have been used
mainly as propellants in aerosols (sprays) and as coolants in refrigeration
systems. Businesses worldwide have
reduced the use of these CFCs and plan to phase them out.
Waste and rubbish disposal
Industrialization
has created a problem of disposal of both domestic and industrial waste. Most
industries create a waste that has to be disposed off. This is usually disposed
off in lakes, rivers and seas.
This
has affected life in these places and consequently affected Economic activities
of those who depend on these waters. It also affects the quality of life.
Another problem is the volume of rubbish that has emerged with
urbanization. Not only is the volume a
problem of disposal, ‘Buveera’ as
they are known in Uganda have blocked sewage and channels and have become a
healthy hazard.
Resource Usage in Business
There
is a fear that with increased industrialization along with the increase in the
world population, the world may run out of resources. To be able to produce the
various products used worldwide, minerals are used. However, the resources are finite. The minerals may get finished, what
next. Another problem is energy
resources. More cars, planes etc, mean
more energy uses. Oil and gas are estimated to last only another 50 years.
Ethical Issues in Business
Society is also concerned about
ethical issues arising from business practices.
Various issues arise in this regard
include;
·
Donations by business to political parties.
·
Corruption involving buying favours from
politicians and other persons.
·
Industrial espionage.
·
Theft by companies or by individuals.
·
Drug trafficking.
·
Dumping of industrial waste into third world
countries.
·
Child labour.
·
Prostitution
·
And such related matters.
Society
is concerned that business is profiting from wrong doing. But what is this
interest? In case cited above, we have companies that have caused harm to
society. Do these companies have a responsibility to Society?
The
concept of social responsibility focuses on these interests and it has been
evolving over the period.
Why
seek social responsibility of business?
Over
the last 80 years, there has been a remarkable increase in the quantities of
goods and services supplied for human needs. These are attributed to the rapid economic
development that has taken place. Numerous business names are today household
names known as everybody. For instance worldwide names like Coca Cola, IBM,
Sonny, Mercedes Benz, and Toyota are well known. In Uganda’s middle class, the
same names are familiar. Local household
names include sportsman, kimbo and colgate.
Before
World War 1, poverty was taken for granted as a universal condition of mankind.
Today lack of development and poverty is considered an exception and a
problem. Businesses have succeeded so much
that they have created affluence through goods and services and provision of
employment. It is the success of
business that has given rise to demands for social responsibility from
business. This success has come up with many costs.
Another
reason for seeking social responsibility from business is disenchantment with
government and its inability to solve major social problems. It was generally
believed with the decline of individualism at the turn of 19th century
that the government was to solve all major social problems. This myth was exploited with failure of
government to spearhead growth in many socialist countries and as a result,
people started loosing confidence in government’s abilities. The revival of spirit of free markets economies
in 1980’s added to this view that business had a more important role in solving
societal problems than government.
The
emergency of a new group of business managers that have more clout than
politicians has also been another reason why society is looking to business to
solve social problems. In the past, society leaders were the royalty and
clergy. Later, philosophers and scientists were added to the list among the
leaders of society. Today, that is no longer the case. Business owners and managers have emerged as
the new leaders and it is logical that they take up responsibility of society’s
major problems. Names like Bill Gates, Jack Welsh, are common among world
leaders.
Evolution of Social Responsibility
The
concept of social responsibility of business has been dynamic. It has been
changing over time and continues to change. There are broadly two views. The
traditional approach and the modern one.
·
Traditional
approach
The
traditional approach view of social
responsibility of business lays emphasis on managerial
responsibility to business, social
responsibility towards employees and responsibility of business people in
support of the arts, the museum,
musical, educational and religious institutions and donations to philanthropic
and other community causes.
The
contract between society and business was governed by the traditional ethic of
caveat emptor (Let the buyer be aware). This left the buyer to be aware of the products
he consumed and that it was not the responsibility of business to give a fair
deal to consumers.
The
traditional view of social responsibility has been re-emphasized in recent
years by a prominent economics Milton Friedman. He has argued in his book,
Capitalism and Freedom that there is only one social responsibility of
business.
“…..to
use its resources and energy in activities designed to increase its profit so
long as it stays within the rules of the game…… and engages in open and free
competition without deception and fraud…….”
Friedman
argues that business should concern itself only with producing goods and services
and not competent to determine what social problems are and their importance or
urgency. He argues that this should be left to concerned individuals and
government agencies.
Friedman’s
views which are on one extreme on the various arguments of social
responsibility are merely a restatement of the classical practice of social
responsibility by organizations. Early views, which form the basis of social
responsibility of business or corporate social responsibility, are developed out
of principle that power begets responsibility.
Organizations
acquire responsibility out of financial power that they posses. These are general broad responsibilities that
make business stewards of some society problems. Ensuring from the power is the
responsibility of organizations with ability, to attempt to solve some of the
problems in society. This gives rise to
what has been called the Charity
Principal.
The
charity and stewardship principal form the basis of corporate social
responsibility.
The
charity principle requires the more fortunate members of society (the rich) to
assist the less fortunate members including the handicapped, the risk, the
elderly and the unemployed either
directly through other institutions. The
stewardship principal requires business and wealthy individuals to see
themselves as stewards or caretakers who hold their property for the benefit of
society as a whole. These are the principles that formed the basis of corporate
social responsibility.
Drucker
in his book Practice of Management
argues that this traditional approach was concerned with the society responsibility
of business but with social responsibility of business people. Emphasis is on
what business people should or might do outside their business.
·
The
Modern Approach
Whether
business has a responsibility to society is no longer a question. The issue is
to what magnitude. Corporate social responsibility has moved away from
traditional ‘what businesses should do to tackle and solve problems of society,
to what it can contribute to society problems’. This approach arose as a result
of business redefining its role in society.
Some critics of traditional approach argued that the approach allowed
the business community to see social problems from their view of points and
this social responsibility was a reflector of individual values.
The
new concept of social responsibility no longer asks what the limitations of
business are but demands that business takes responsibility for social problems, social issues, social
and political goals and that is also becomes the keeper of society’s conscience
and a solver of society’s problems. In
fact, this social responsibility is not only being demanded of business but
also of non business institutions like Universities, hospitals and other
societies and Associations not for profit. The argument is that every
organization has responsibility to society.
·
Corporate
Social Responsibility
Many
mangers and theorists have come up with what may be called variations in modern
approach. These variations are also a
reaction against the traditional approach which tended to equate social
responsibility with individual decisions of business people. One such approach
is that of corporate social responsiveness rather than responsibility.
This
concept argues that business should be responsive to, rather than responsible
for, social problems. This means
business should solve problems that exist or crop in society when they come to
learn about them. On learning about the problem, business should study the
problem and evolve ways of dealing with it. This is responding to problems in
society.
Social
impacts and social problems
Drucker,
with his tremendous contribution to all kinds of business concepts puts into context
social responsibility by introducing the sub concepts of social impacts and
social problems.
He
argues that the concept of social responsibility arises because of the
existence of business units and their interaction with the society. Normally,
these responsibilities arise in two areas. They may emerge as a result of the actions of
the business itself, social impacts or may arise as problems of society which
are not caused by the business but may affect it because of social problems.
·
Social
impacts
This
deal with what an organization does to society. An organization exists to
provide a specific product or service to society. It has to do its work within
a social setting. It employs people and uses resources in the environment and this
impact on the society. Thus, its social impacts go beyond the contribution it
exists to make. Social impacts are
incidental to the main function of the
institution, for instance, an industry
producing iron and steel releases smoke
which creates a social impact, the smoke is incidental to the manufacture of
iron and steel which is a product needed by the society.
Management
deals with social responsibility arising out of social impacts by trying to
minimize them or eliminate such impacts if possible since they are not primary
to the objective of the business. Thus, it is management’s responsibility
because it is business responsibility.
The Exxon Valdez oil spill and the Bhopal gas leakage are classical
cases when business has a responsibility for its impact on society.
Social problems
This
deals with what an organization can do for the society. There are social problems that exist in
society and may affect an organization e.g. Drugs and AIDS epidemics have
affected societies. A health business or any other organization cannot exist in
a sick society, thus business has to tackle and solve these social problems and
in essence, it assumes responsibility for social problems.
Management
of organizations finds such problems as challenges and tackle them to satisfy a
social need not because they are seen as profitable business opportunities, but
are issues which may directly or indirectly affect business.
AIDS
affects society by killing young able aided people and even imposes costs on
their treatment before death occurs.
Business may be affected in two ways. One is that by affecting able
aided people it affects the supply of labour to business. Business will thus
experience labour shortages. The second
is that it is the able aided people who work and earn. Through earned incomes they purchase goods
produced by business. Costs of treating such people and their absence at the
work also impacts on organization.
LESSONS FOR UGANDA
Business
in Uganda is still in an early stage of development. There is no sizable business compared to
Kenya or for that matter the developed countries. Despite this, there are
already problems of social problems that business needs to tackle.
Through
out the country, ‘buveera’ has
become a problem. There is an urgent need for society to solve this problem.
Many people have constructed houses in swamps causing problems to the
environment.
The National
Environment Management Authority has been very active in the recent years in
addressing issues of environmental protection. They have been reported in the
press to be taking an active role in preventing environmental destruction. They
now make impact studies and authorize establishment of industries after these
studies have been made on the impact of a factory on the environment.
Because
Uganda has not made a lot in business development, it has a chance to develop a
responsive corporate social responsibility.
Cases
of Corporate Social Responsibility in Uganda
·
The
Madhvani Group
The
Madhvani Group is known for sugar among other household items in Uganda. It is
one of the largest conglomerates in the country. Its core business has been and
continues to be sugar. It has an 8,000 acre plantation in Kakira, Jinja
district. It has been encouraging out
growers of sugar cane around its estate with a view to creating jobs and
incomes in the communities. It has recently launched an initiative to benefit
the out grower group as well as the broader community. The Madhvani group sees
this initiative as putting back resources into the local community.
The
group does other things including providing working capital and loans to the
out growers, primary health care facilities and maintenance of local
infrastructure.
·
British
American Tobacco (BAT)
BAT is
a multinational with operations in Uganda. It manufactures and sells cigarettes
globally. In Uganda, BAT has an out growers scheme in areas where tobacco is
grown. BAT has also initiated dialogue with stake holders where it discusses
the impact of cigarette smoking on commodities. BAT does not encourage underage people to
smoke and as part it continues to produce cigarettes with low nicotine.
·
Makerere
University Business School (MUBS)
The
Business School has a programme called Business clinics where it arranges for
free business advice to small business communities as part. According to the
School this is one way of giving back to the community.
Part of this has been extracted from a
book entitled, “Business Administration by Waswa Balunywa”
SCOPE
OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF BUSINESS
What
society expects from Business
Drucker’s proposition tends to
put into context of social problems. These are broad outlines of what is expected
of business, their obligations towards society.
Business Organizations are
economic units that exist for economic performance and economic results guided
by the profit motive. However, the
society expects assistance from business since business exists for and in
society. Thus, the challenge of business today is to make an economic
enterprise truly human with an integrated social purpose. We can enumerate some
of specific responsibilities of business society as follows:-
Business
and Resource
When a business embarks on the production of goods or services,
it does so with a view of solving some particular societal need by providing
the product or rendering the service.
This end, every business has the responsibility of making the fullest possible
use of its resources, whether human or material. This is with a view of
rendering the best economic performance with the best result.
However, the production of
modern goods has come with negative consequences on resources. Not only are resources being depleted but
there is also pollution and waste of resources.
This has given rise to environmental
concerns and today there are laws and movements of people with concern for environmental
protection. The consequences of un controlled utilization of resources has been
ecological imbalance, depletion of the zone layer, acid rain and global warming.
Weather has been changing
worldwide with droughts, too much rain and other phenomenon.
There are now programmes aimed
at conserving resources and preventing pollution. Social movement like Green Peace are battling business over environmental protection. These movements work towards prevention of the
environment. They have argued against nuclear experiments and such other
environmental degrading practices. In
Uganda, The National Management Environmental Authority (NEMA) was set up by an Act of parliament as an agency to ensure
sustainable development. It is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that
the country’s resources are conserved.
Business, therefore has a responsibility to ensure proper utilization of
resources keeping in mind their renewal and responsibility.
Business
and Shareholder
Shareholders are people who
commit their capital to undertake a business. Thus, business has the
responsibility providing fair and adequate reward or their risks taken in
availing such capital. Besides, the
returns on their capital, shareholders are entitled to regular, accurate and
full financial information about the business. Business is thus responsible to owners.
Business
and workers
When a business is
established, it has some specific purpose, to render a service or produce some
commodity; however, this cannot be achieved unless there are people to manage
it. Workers are drawn from society and thus it is the responsibility of the
business to see that workers get their fair wage for fair work.
Besides remuneration of
workers, management must recognize worker’s right to participate in decisions
affecting them, to membership of a trade union, to collective bargaining and
right to strike. Management must strive
to and give workers an opportunity to develop their capabilities through
training and education. Workers participation in profits and purchase of share is an imperative requirement on the part
of management also.
Other issues regarding
employment include employment of women and minorities, and health and safety of
workers. Over the last 20 years or so,
there has been a realization of unfair treatment to women. Women were excluded
from senior and managerial jobs, they were paid less. A gender campaign to bring women to the
mainstream has seen women come up to be treated equally with men. This situation is not yet satisfactory but a lot
has been achieved.
The employment of minorities
and disabled has also been an issue of concern.
It many western countries,
blacks were denied jobs because of colour. Disabled people were also discriminated
against. In many countries, this
discrimination has been outlawed and companies are required to be equal
opportunity employers. Another aspect
that a business has to take care is health and safety of employees.
Protective clothing, first aid
and safety measures must be in place in organizations. All these are today obligations of companies
to employees.
Business
and the customers
Business undertakes a
particular opportunity to satisfy society’s needs. Goods and services to
society should therefore be reasonably priced and of a standard quality.
Adulteration of goods, lack of
fair measure and lack of service or courtesy to customer, misleading
advertisement and dishonest means are violation of obligations business has
towards customers-society. The concept
of the buyer be aware is long gone. Business cannot exploit consumers.
As a result of the desire by
consumers themselves to fight companies that exploit them, they have formed
organizations for a purpose. They go by various
names, consumers watch, consumer alert etc. In Uganda, the Uganda Consumers
Protection Association is such a movement. This movement by consumers to
protect their interest is called consumerism.
Besides thus has a responsibility to provide a fair deal to consumers.
Business
and Government
In recent years, society has turned
its eyes off the Government to Business. Business role in society has achieved heights
beyond that of government in tackling and solving problems. However,
the government is still the apex institution. Government guides policy and provides the
necessary climate for business to flourish. It also sets rules by which
business plays. However, government can
only function if business pays taxes. All
government activities depend on this.
Business should meet
government requirements of taxes, returns and such requisites as demanded. Besides the role mentioned above, many
governments still play an important role in societal affairs by providing
utilities that business evades due to unpredictability of such ventures.
Business
and Community
The above five points are
rather particular in that they refer to specific aspects in society. The community expects numerous services and
help from business.
Business exists for society
and in society but it should not make society bear costs that result from
business- social impacts. Things like
air and water pollution are examples of social impacts that arise due to
business activity. Location of an industry
and rapid economic development to provide high standards are also business
obligations towards the community.
Business therefore has a
crucial role to play in community life and its responsibilities are wide and
varied. This is now being expressed
through the environmental protection movements like Green Peace and consumer
movements.
Government world wide now talk
of sustainable development which is development aimed at ensuring that
resources are available over a long period of time. Business therefore has a
responsibility to society as a whole. To
provide goods and services, to solve social problems and also to ensure
sustainable development. Business should not simply use resources for
its sake, it should keep society’s overall requirements in mind.
Limits
of Social Responsibility
While we expect all from the
business, we must appreciate that there are limitations on what it can do.
Limits
of business’s own objectives
Te classical approach to
social responsibility has been against business assuming social
responsibilities. They argue (and are
also supported by economist Friedman) that a business primary responsibility is
to produce goods and services efficiently and to earn profits for its owners.
Any solution of a social impact
or a social problem-unless it is making it into an opportunity-creates social
costs and social costs cannot be born unless there are profits-the saying these
days is “it is not enough for a business to do well, it must also do good” but
in order to “do good”, a business must do “do well” and indeed “do very well”. Therefore business cannot simply solve social
problems because they exist. This may kill the business unit.
Lack
of competence
To take one task for acts for
which lacks competence is an irresponsible behaviour. A business cannot simply respond to social
problems or even social impacts because if has too, even if it was complete.
Limits
of Authority
The most important limitation
on social responsibility is the limitation of authority. Responsibility and authority are two
inseparable words, whoever assumes responsibility must have authority and thus
to assume social responsibility unless it has the right authority. On social
impacts, the authority is within the institution. But for social problems,
authority must be acquired from society. Besides, when business assumes such authority,
there is usually talk that it is becoming the master of society. Thus, there is a great limitation imposed by
the authority factor on business assuming responsibility.
BEYOND
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
While we demand business to be
socially responsible, there are other issues which are not responsibility as
such but for which business is obliged. Issues evolve around business ethics. There is a lot of talk about ethics of
business. Ethics is a problem of moral values. Honesty is the word to describe ethics,
however, this is required to everybody and not only business. The first responsibility of a professional, be
it a doctor, a lawyer, a manager-is the Greek statement “primum non nocere”- not knowingly do harm.
This is the basic rule of professional
ethics and the basic rule of an ethics of public responsibility.
The importance and uniqueness
of business today puts business in a unique position in the matter of ethics. Business
has become central to every activity. It
pays wages, taxes and supports non-business activity. The relationship among
units, with politicians and other members of society is the issue that involves
ethics. The issues that have been
important are corruption, theft, industrial espionage, misleading advertising.
Corruption
This is an issue of major concern
worldwide corruption takes various forms and is in both business and non
business institutions. It may be bribery
to influence the conduct of a person or taking advantage of a position one is
in. The subject however is
controversial.
In certain culture, especially
Asian and African certain things are not ethical. For instance offering gifts
to business people is also common practice in many African cultures. It is seen as a sign of respect.
In the majority of the western
countries most of these practices amount to bribery and are unacceptable. As the world becomes one through
globalization, and yet business practices are greatly influenced by western
practices, the subject of corruption is taking centre stage as a problem. Should business people offer gifts which may
influence awarding of contracts?
Thefts
Another unethical behaviour is
theft in business. This is a major
issue, theft by employees. Employees
take away company property, forge documents, steal money and company
deliberately. This is theft. One of the
major causes of collapse of organization in Uganda and believe in many African
countries is theft by employees. There
is no well documented evidence to this fact but many employees have mentioned
this as problem.
Many managers of once thriving
companies have gone out the collapsing companies with property not easily
accounted for. This is clearly unethical
behaviour but is rampant in Uganda. Theft is usually taken as a corrupt
practice.
Industrial
espionage
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